A virtual team (also known as a geographically dispersed team or GDT) is a group of individuals who work across time, space and organizational boundaries with links strengthened by webs of communication technology. Powell, Piccoli and Ives define virtual teams in their literature review article "as groups of geographically, organizationally and/or time dispersed workers brought together by information and telecommunication technologies to accomplish one or more organizational tasks."1 Ale Ebrahim, N., Ahmed, S. & Taha, Z. in their recent (2009) literature review paper, added two key issues to definition of a virtual team “as small temporary groups of geographically, organizationally and/ or time dispersed knowledge workers who coordinate their work predominantly with electronic information and communication technologies in order to accomplish one or more organization tasks”
2 Members of virtual teams and may never meet face-to-face. Virtual teams are made possible by a proliferation of technology that has significantly increased the scope of off-site communication.3 Virtual teams allow companies to procure the best talent without geographical restrictions.5
Model¶
There are three main aspects to a virtual team - purpose, people and links.8
Structure of Virtual Teams¶
Powell, Piccoli and Ives9 found and investigated 43 articles about virtual teams and concluded that the current research have found four main focus areas of it.
Inputs¶
Design of a virtual team means simply that forming a VT should be planned. This means structuring the interactions; what kind of communication tools are used, how much face-to-face time will be possible, etc. Research has found that team building exercises,10 the establishment of shared norms (Sarker et al., 2001, p. 50) and the establishment of a clear team structure11 helps the team to succeed.12 Kirkman et al.13 found empirically that having more face-to-face meetings improved the empowerment of virtual teams, which leads to better learning. Numerous communication problems can be diverted by creating shared knowledge databases in order to allow all the team members to have the same information and to know that others have it, too.14 As an added bonus, shared knowledge databases also share the same language and mental models, which are substitutes for the all important face-to-face time. Furthermore, shared mental models can be focused through designing, requiring the teams to create goals and strategies. This has been shown clearly to improve the teams15
With cultural differences also coordination problems and obstacles to effective communication can be involved.16 These problems may be solved by actively understanding and accepting differences in cultures.17
The technical expertise of a team seems to have a positive effect on the team‟s performance and the satisfaction of belonging to the team.18 At the same time, high trust is found to develop.19 On the other hand, ”the relationship between technology and task performance is found to be more dependent on experience with technology and with group membership than the type of task on which the group was working”.20
Diverse technological skills can create conflict among the team.21 This is why teams should have consistent training to improve team performance.22 For instance, mentoring is a good way to make personal ties to more experienced virtual team professionals.23 According to Tan et al.,24 consistent training fosters cohesiveness, trust, team work, commitment to team goals, individual satisfaction and higher perceived decision quality. In their article, they taught a communication technique called the dialogue technique. It is created through three stages: small talk, sharing mental models and norm building.
Socio-emotional processes¶
This section introduces the emotional problems involved and mitigation tactics needed to achieve cohesion and trust among team members. Overall, the research about this reports “a positive link between socio-emotional process and outcomes of the virtual team project.”25 Because of geographical distribution, face-to-face time occurs only rarely. This, according to research, results in weaker social links between team-mates and leads the team to be more task-focused than socially focused.26 If face-to-face meetings are feasible, meetings should be held as much as possible at the beginning of the team formation in order to bring team-mates closer and form interpersonal bonds. These meetings should focus more on relationship building than on actual business.27 However, with socializing different cultural preferences have to be remembered.28
If face-to-face meetings are not possible or feasible to the desired extent, other approaches can be applied. Social-bonding can be done partially via electronic communication tools. Jarvenpaa and Leidner's29 study found that if teams communicate more socially they achieve higher trust and better social and emotional relationships. Leaders can help foster relationship building and general team building in many ways, e.g. by providing continuous feedback, listening to team members‟ opinions and suggestions, clearly stating the team member roles and having consistency in their leadership style.30
Cohesion means the sense of unity in a team. It is found to be important, but there are no conclusive results on how to support it in the virtual team context.31
Trust is particularly problematic subject with virtual teams, because it is arguable whether people can be expected to trust each other if they have never met face–to-face.32 Furthermore, trust is noted to be crucial in successful teams, but usually there is not much time to build it little by little because often the teams are short-lived in projects. Jarvenpaa and Leidner33 describe a mechanism of how people solve the trust problem in a short time. It is called the swift trust paradigm and it suggests that team members assume from the beginning that the other team members are trustworthy. They adjust that assumption during the lifetime of the team. Jarvenpaa and Leidner35
Task Processes¶
Task processes are the different functions that happen when a team is doing its work. Communication is one of the most crucial things in virtual teams. It starts from selecting excellent communicators for the team members and the right technology for them to use.36 Some empirically found challenges in successful communication in virtual teams are failure to communicate due to wrong or lacking contextual information, unevenly distributed information, interpretation of the meaning of silence and technical problems.37 Because of the lack of face-to-face time, the team can miss nonverbal communication altogether. The extensive reliance on communication technology leads to reduced impact and difficulties in management compared to the traditional teams.38 Researchers have found some solutions for these problems. One company has created a reward system for team cooperation to encourage people to actively and accurately communicate.39 On the other hand, according to Pink's40 research on rewarding creativity, rewarding communication is not a sustainable way to encourage cooperation. In another company, they emphasized the need to debate as well as merely share information.41 Predictability and feedback also frequently improve communication effectiveness, creating trust and better team performance.42
In addition, in one study researchers tested the question of whether adding video to electronic communication helps to explain a detailed task (a map route) to another person.43 They found that for native speaker pairs it did not bring any additional benefits, but for non-native speaker pairs it brought significant improvement to the task.44
It is, naturally, more difficult to coordinate virtual teams in different time zones, cultures and mental models. Collaboration norms have to develop for the team to function well.45 As mentioned before, periodical face-to-face meetings are a good way to form relationships and also a good vehicle to coordinate activities and to drive the project forward.46 When face-to-face meetings are not feasible, one alternative is to develop coordination protocols with communication training.47 Ramesh and Dennis48 have suggested standardizing the team‟s inputs, processes and/or outputs. This should help the team to coordinate and help the other party.
The task-technology-structure fit examines “the possible fit between various technologies available...”.53
Outputs¶
Output in virtual teams means all the things that come out of the work processes of the team. When comparing the performance of traditional and virtual teams, the results are mixed. Some studies find traditional teams and some virtual teams to be better. The majority of studies have found the teams to be about at the same level.54 Powell, Piccoli and Ives55 list many studies that have found different factors, which make virtual teams successful. The found factors are:
Training
Strategy/goal setting
Developing shared language
Team building
Team cohesiveness
Communication
Coordination and commitment of the teams
The appropriate task-technology fit
Competitive and collaborative conflict behaviors (conversely, the same study found that avoidance and compromise conflict behavior had a negative impact)
The results from different student studies are mixed concerning working in a virtual team.59
Types of virtual teams¶
Below are the most common types of virtual teams.60
Networked teams
Parallel teams
Project development teams
Work, production or functional teams
Service teams
Offshore ISD teams
Networked teams¶
Generally, networked teams are geographically distributed and not necessarily from the same organization. These teams are frequently created and just as frequently dissolved; they are usually formed to discuss specific topics where members from the area of expertise, possibly from different organizations, pitch their ideas in the same discussion. Depending on the complexity of the issue, additional members to the team may be added at any time. The duration these teams last may vary significantly depending on how fast or slow the issue is resolved.61
Parallel teams¶
Parallel teams are highly task oriented teams that usually consist of specialized professionals. While they are generally only required for very short span of time, unlike networked teams, they are not dissolved after completion of the tasks. The team may be either internal or external to the organization.62
Project development teams¶
Similar to parallel teams, these teams are geographically distributed and may operate from different timezones. Project development teams are mainly focused on creating new products, information systems or organizational processes for users and/or customers. These teams exist longer than parallel teams and have the added ability to make decisions rather than just make recommendations. Similar to networked teams, project development teams may also add or remove members of their team at any given of time, as needed for their area of expertise.63
Work, production or functional teams¶
These teams are totally function specific where they only work on a particular area within an organization (i.e. finance, training, research, etcetera). Operating virtually from different geographical locations, these teams exist to perform regular or ongoing tasks.64
Service teams¶
Service teams are geographically located in different timezones and are assigned to a particular service such as customer support, network upgrades, data maintenance, etc. Each team works on providing the particular service in their daylight hours and at the end of day, work is delegated to the next team which operates in a different timezone so that there is someone handling the service 24 hours a day.65
Offshore ISD teams¶
Offshore ISD outsourcing teams are independent service provider teams that a company can subcontract portions of work to. These teams usually work in conjunction with an onshore team.67
Advantages of virtual teams¶
Increased productivity:
Virtual teams often see an increase in productivity because more personal flexibility is achieved, commute time is reduced, and work is not limited by the traditional 9-5 work day schedule. In turn, the company never sees an off hour. The team on the other side of the globe simply picks up where the prior team left off. This approach is commonly referred to as “Follow the Sun Approach”. This advantage can translate to a much faster time to market for new products and technology.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}
Extended market opportunity: This is a major benefit of geographically dispersed teams due to direct access to different market opportunities. With work teams located in different parts of the globe, organizations are able to establish their presence with customers worldwide. This also gives small business owners the ability to compete on a global scale as well without being limited to a particular customer base.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}
Knowledge transfer:
This is one of the most important benefits of a virtual team; utilizing people with different types of knowledge spread out across the globe can be very beneficial to any organization. Online meetings, remote computer access, wireless technology, and conferencing systems offer a way for participants to join a complex discussion from anywhere in the world. This benefit can enable most companies to compete on a global scale.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}
Disadvantages of virtual teams¶
Communication deficiency: The biggest disadvantage that any virtual team can suffer from is the lack of efficiency in communication, partly due to constraints in virtual communication mediums. This is also primarily due to the fact that humans communicate better when they are able to communicate with their body language.68 Inevitably, virtual teams may face obstacles due to restrictions of the Internet which in turn may lead to incorrect assumptions if a message is not laid out clearly. Failure to properly communicate and clearly address messages or emails could to lead to frustration and eventually failure.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}
Poor leadership and management:
Poor leadership can result in the failure of any team, whether virtual or not; however, it becomes a much more prominent problem in virtual teams. Messages must be sent across accurately and clearly. Inability to effectively communicate to members of the team can all greatly affect a project .69
Incompetent team members: Virtual teams should only consist of competent and experienced team members due to the distance factor which can overtly affect the timing and completion date of a project. Projects are more likely to fail if the team consists of individuals who are lazy or lack sufficient knowledge to complete their assigned tasks. It only takes one incompetent team member to have a negative effect on the rest of the team.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}
See also¶
References¶
{{reflist}}
Further reading¶
*Geographically Dispersed Teams (1999). Valerie Sessa et al. ISBN 1-882197-54-2
Duarte, D.L., & Snyder, N.T. (2006). Mastering Virtual Teams (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0-7879-8280-6
Hertel, G., Geister, S., & Konradt, U. (2005). Managing virtual teams: A review of current empirical research. Human Resource Management Review, 15, 69-95. ISSN: 1053-4822
Lipnack, Jessica and Stamps, Jeffrey Virtual Teams. Wiley (2 edition - September 13, 2000) ISBN 0471388254
Wiggins, B.E. (2009, July). Global teams and media selection. In Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications (pp. 705–710). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/31577.
Konetes, G., & Wiggins, B.E. (2009, September). The effectiveness of virtual teams. In Proceedings of the Laurel Highlands Communications Conference (pp. 11–18). Indiana: Indiana University of Pennsylvania.
External links¶
Virtual Teams{{Dead link|date=June 2011}} (Robert Davison, ISWORLD)
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de:Virtuelles Team fr:Équipe virtuelle
hr:Virtualni tim ru:Виртуальный коллектив
sr:Virtuelni timovi fi:Hajautettu työ
uk:Віртуальний колектив zh:虚拟团 队
1Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004
2{{Cite journal |url= http://www.academicjournals.org/sre/abstracts/abstracts/abstracts%202009/Dec%202/Ale%20Ebrahim%20et%20al.htm |title=Virtual R & D teams in small and medium enterprises: A literature review |last1=Ale Ebrahim |first1=N. |last2=Ahmed |first2=S. |last3=Taha |first3=Z. |journal=Scientific Research and Essay |year=2009 |month=December |volume=4 |issue=13 |pages=1575–1590 |accessdate=January 18, 2011}}
3Vlaar, P. (2008). Co Creating Understanding And Value In Distributed Work. MIS Quarterly, 32, 227-255.
4 which requires effective leadership...despite the widespread increase in virtual teamwork, there has been relatively little focus on the role of virtual team leaders."
5 According to Hambley, O’Neil, & Kline (2007), "virtual teams require new ways of working across boundaries through systems, processes, technology, and people,4
7 Purpose is generally translated into certain action steps for people to work on with a defined structure consisting of common goals, individual tasks and results.6
8Jessica Lipnack, & Jeffrey Stamps. (1999). Virtual teams: The new way to work. Strategy & Leadership, 27(1), 14-19. Retrieved November 2, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 38782926). While purpose is an important aspect for all [[organizations], it's the most critical aspect for virtual teams; purpose is what holds a virtual team together. Virtual teams do not have hierarchy or any other common structures because they may not be from the same organization, and purpose here brings and holds the team together.7
9see Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.8, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004 .
10Sarker et al. (2000) p.80, Suprateek Sarker, Francis Lau, and Sundeep Sahay. Using an adapted grounded theory approach for inductive theory building about virtual team development. SIGMIS Database vol. 32, issue 1, 2000.
11Sarker et al. (2000) p.81, Suprateek Sarker, Francis Lau, and Sundeep Sahay. Using an adapted grounded theory approach for inductive theory building about virtual team development. SIGMIS Database vol. 32, issue 1, 2000.)
12Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.8, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004 .
13Kirkman et. al. (2004) p.186, Bradley L. Kirkman, Benson Rosen, Paul E. Tesluk, Cristina B. Gibson, The Impact of Team Empowerment on Virtual Team Performance: The Moderating Role of Face-to-Face Interaction, The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 47, No. 2 (Apr., 2004), p. 175-192.
14Crampton, C. (2001) p.355-359, Catherine Cramton, The Mutual Knowledge Problem and its Consequences for Dispersed Collaboration, Organization Science, Vol. 12, issue 3, 2001, p. 346-371.
15Suchan and Hayzak (2001) p.185, Jim Suchan, Greg Hayzak, The Communication Characteristics of Virtual Teams: A Case Study, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, Vol. 44, issue 3, p. 174-186.
16see Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.9, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004 .
17Robey, Khoo and Powers (2000) p.58, Daniel Robey and Huoy Min Khoo and Carolyn Powers, Situated Learning in Cross-Functional Virtual Teams, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 2000, vol 43, p. 51-66.
18Van Ryssen and Godar (2000) p. 55-56, Stefaan Van Ryssen, Susan Hayes Godar, Going international without going international: multinational virtual teams, Journal of International Management, Volume 6, Issue 1, 2000, p. 49-60.
19Jarvenpaa and Leidner, (1999) p. 807, Sirkka Jarvenpaa and Dorothy E. Leidner, Communication and Trust in Global Virtual Teams, Organization Science; Special Issue: Communication Processes for Virtual Organizations, Vol. 10, issue 6, 1999, p. 791-815.
20Hollingshead, McGrath and O‟Connor (1993) p.328, Hollingshead, A., McGrath, J., and O‟Connor, K. , Group Task Performance and Communication Technology: A Longitudinal Study of Computer mediated versus Face-to-face Groups, Small Group Research, Vol. 24, issue 3, 1993, p. 307-333.
21Sarker and Sahay (2002) p.4-5, Sarker, Suprateek and Sahay, Sundeep, Information systems development by US-Norwegian virtual teams: implications of time and space, System Sciences, HICSS. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2002.
22Kaiser et al. (2000) p.80, Paula R. Kaiser, William L. Tullar and Diana McKowen, Student Team Projects by Internet, Business Communication Quarterly, Volume 63, issue 4, 2000, pages 75–82.
23Suchan and Hayzak (2001) p.183, Jim Suchan, Greg Hayzak, The Communication Characteristics of Virtual Teams: A Case Study, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, Vol. 44, issue 3, p. 174-186.
24Tan et .al (2000) p.160, Bernard Tan, Kwok-Kee Wei, Wayne Huang, Guet-Ngoh Ng, A Dialogue Technique to Enhance Electronic Communication in Virtual Teams, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, Vol. 43, issue 2, 2000, p. 153-165.
25Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.9-10, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004.)
26see Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.10, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004.)
27Robey, Khoo and Powers (2000) p.59, Daniel Robey and Huoy Min Khoo and Carolyn Powers, Situated Learning in Cross-Functional Virtual Teams, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 2000, vol 43, p. 51-66.
28Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.10, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004.)
29Jarvenpaa and Leidner, (1999) p.807 , Sirkka Jarvenpaa and Dorothy E. Leidner, Communication and Trust in Global Virtual Teams, Organization Science; Special Issue: Communication Processes for Virtual Organizations, Vol. 10, issue 6, 1999, p. 791-815.
30Kayworth and Leidner (2001) p.25 , Timothy R. Kayworth and Dorothy E. Leidner, Leadership Effectiveness in Global Virtual Teams Journal of Management Information Systems Vol. 18, issue 3, 2001/2002, pp. 7–40.
32McDonough, Kahn, Barczak (2000) p.115-116, Edward F. McDonough III, Kenneth B. Kahn, Gloria Barczak, An investigation of the use of global, virtual, and collocated new product development teams, Northeastern University, Boston and the University of Tennessee, USA,2000.
33Jarvenpaa and Leidner, (1999) p.794 , Sirkka Jarvenpaa and Dorothy E. Leidner, Communication and Trust in Global Virtual Teams, Organization Science; Special Issue: Communication Processes for Virtual Organizations, Vol. 10, issue 6, 1999, p. 791-815.
35 also researched the differences between teams that had a high level of trust in the beginning and teams with a high amount of trust in the end and compared them. To achieve high trust early in the group‟s life, the team had social and enthusiastic communication and they coped well with technical uncertainty and took individual initiatives. The groups that enjoyed trust later had predictable communication, timely responses, positive leadership and the ability to move from social communication to task-focused communication.34
36Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.11, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004.)
37Crampton, C. (2001) p.360, Catherine Cramton, The Mutual Knowledge Problem and its Consequences for Dispersed Collaboration, Organization Science, Vol. 12, issue 3, 2001, p. 346-371.
38McDonough, Kahn, Barczak (2000) p.119, Edward F. McDonough III, Kenneth B. Kahn, Gloria Barczak, An investigation of the use of global, virtual, and collocated new product development teams, Northeastern University, Boston and the University of Tennessee, USA,2000.
39Suchan and Hayzak (2001) p.179, Jim Suchan, Greg Hayzak, The Communication Characteristics of Virtual Teams: A Case Study, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, Vol. 44, issue 3, p. 174-186.
40Dan Pink, Drive: the surprising truth about what motivates us, Published 2009 by Riverhead Books in New York.
41Kruempel (2000) p. 191, Kari Kruempel, Making the Right (Interactive) Moves for Knowledge-Producing Tasks in Computer-Mediated Groups, IEEE transactions on professional communication, vol. 43, issue 2, 2000.
43Veinott, Olson, Olson, and Fu, (1999) p. 303, Elizabeth S. Veinott, Judith Olson, Gary M. Olson, and Xiaolan Fu. Video helps remote work: speakers who need to negotiate common ground benefit from seeing each other. Concurrent Engineering, vol 15 issue 2, 2007.
44Veinott, Olson, Olson, and Fu, (1999) p. 307, Elizabeth S. Veinott, Judith Olson, Gary M. Olson, and Xiaolan Fu. Video helps remote work: speakers who need to negotiate common ground benefit from seeing each other. Concurrent Engineering, vol 15 issue 2, 2007.
45Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.12, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004.)
46Maznevski and Chudoba (2000) p.489, Martha L. Maznevski, Katherine M. Chudoba, Bridging Space over Time: Global Virtual Team Dynamics and Effectiveness, Organization Science, Vol. 11, issue 5, 2000, p. 473-492.
47Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.11-12, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004.)
48Ramesh and Dennis (2002) p.219, Ramesh, Venkataraman and Dennis, Alan R., The object-oriented team: Lessons for virtual teams from global software development, System Sciences, 2002. HICSS. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Hawaii International Conference, p. 212- 221.
49Holland, Gaston and Gomes (2000), Sarah Holland, Kevin Gaston, Jorge Gomes, Critical success factors for cross-functional teamwork in new product development, International Journal of Management Reviews, vol. 2, issue 3, 2000, p.231-259
50Robey, Khoo and Powers (2000) p.59, Daniel Robey and Huoy Min Khoo and Carolyn Powers, Situated Learning in Cross-Functional Virtual Teams, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 2000, vol 43, p. 51-66.
51Majchrzak et al. (2000) p.580-590, Ann Majchrzak, Ronald E. Rice, Arvind Malhotra, Nelson King, Sulin Ba, Technology Adaptation: The Case of a Computer-Supported Inter-Organizational Virtual Team, MIS Quarterly Vol. 24, issue 4, 2000, p. 569-600.
5249;.50 Majchrzak et al.51 found that face-to-face meetings or phones calls are suitable for ambiguous tasks, managing conflicts, managing external resources, brainstorming and strategic talks. Electric communication is more suitable for more structured tasks such as routine analysis, examining design tradeoffs and monitoring project status. Interestingly, in their study the team first adjusted their organization to the technology at hand, but later also adjusted the technology to their organization.
53 Studies have hypothesized that the technology fit depends on individual preferences, e.g. experience of use and the urgency of the task;52
54Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.12-13, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004.)
55Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) p.13, Anne Powell, Gabriele Piccoli, and Blake Ives. Virtual teams: a review of current literature and directions for future research. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems - Winter Vol. 35, issue 1, 2004.)
56Tan et .al (2000), Bernard Tan, Kwok-Kee Wei, Wayne Huang, Guet-Ngoh Ng, A Dialogue Technique to Enhance Electronic Communication in Virtual Teams, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, Vol. 43, issue 2, 2000, p. 153-165.
57Eveland and Bikson (1988) p.368, J. D. Eveland and T. K. Bikson. 1988. Work group structures and computer support: a field experiment. ACM Trans. Inf. Syst. Vol. 6, issue 4, 1988.
58Lind (1999) p.280, Mary R .Lind, The gender impact of temporary virtual work groups, Professional Communication, IEEE Transactions on professional communication, vol.42, issue 4, 1999, p.276-285.
59 Tan et al.56 found that teams which used their dialogue technique were more satisfied with decisions made in the team. One study found that a traditional team started out more satisfied than a virtual team. Then, in less than a year, the satisfaction of the virtual team rose and exceeded the satisfaction of the traditional team.57 Furthermore, some studies have found that women, generally, are happier in virtual teams than men.58
60Virtual team, Mastering virtual teams: strategies, tools, and techniques that succeed By Deborah L. Duarte, Nancy Tennant Snyder
67 Offshore ISD is commonly used for software development as well as international R&D projects.66
68{{cite book|last=Pease|first=Barbara and Allan|title=The Definitive Book of Body Language |year=2006|publisher=Bantam |isbn=0553804720}}
69Jury, Alister (2008). Leadership Effectiveness within Virtual Teams: Investigating Mediating and Moderating Mechanisms. PhD Thesis, School of Psychology, The University of Queensland
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